François-Antoine-Henri Descroizilles (1781-1825), demostrador real de química, boticario, inventor y químico industrial: padre del análisis volumétrico. Parte II / François-Antoine-Henri Descroizilles (1781-1825), démonstrateur royal de chimie, apothecary, inventor and industrial chemist: the father of titrimetric analysis. Part II

En la primera parte de esta contribución se han abordado la condiciones de contorno del nuevo método de blanqueo que idea Berthollet tras el descubrimiento del cloro (ácido muriático oxigenado) por Scheele. Esta segunda se centra en lo concerniente a la relevante figura del farmacéutico Descroizilles, y a las variadas facetas a las que se dedica (i.e. analista, inventor, químico industrial), destacando los aspectos de su vida y de su obra. Descroizilles procede de una dinastía de farmacéuticos destacada en Dieppe, ejerce en primer lugar en Rouen, marchando a París más tarde en donde llega a ser miembro del Consejo de Manufacturas. Descroizilles afronta la problemática de la sidra que afecta a la región de Normandía como consecuencia de las malas prácticas de conservación. Con ayuda de la Casa de Fontenay saca adelante el método de blanqueo por cloro en escala industrial. Idea los procedimientos y aparatos necesarios para llevar a cabo el análisis volumétrico, en especial un sistema de medida que denomina "berthollímetro" en honor de Berthollet, colaborando con el ingeniero Chevalier en la fabricación y venta del mismo. Descroizilles estudia en detalle los álcalis del comercio. Finalmente, se tratan aspectos menos conocidos relacionados con los polvos de gas y el alumbre para concluir con la contribución de Gay Lussac a la volumetría, fundamental para consolidar la obra emprendida por Descroizilles

In the first part of this contribution, the boundary conditions of the new bleaching method proposed by Berthollet after the discovery of chlorine (oxygenated muriatic acid) by Scheele have been addressed. This second part focuses more on everything concerning the relevant figure of the pharmacist Descroizilles, and the various facets (i.e. analyst, inventor, industrial chemist) in which he is involved, highlighting the aspects of his life and his work. Descroizilles comes from a dynasty of pharmacists stationed in Dieppe. He first established in Rouen, arriving in Paris later, and becoming a member of the Council of Manufactures. Descroizilles tackles the problem of cider that affects the Normandy region as a consequence of bad conservation practices. With the help of the Casa de Fontenay, it takes the chlorine bleaching method on an industrial scale. Descroizilles devises the necessary apparatus and procedures to carry out the titrimetric analysis, in special a measuring system that denominates "berthollimeter" in honour of Berthollet, collaborating with the engineer Chevalier in the manufacture and sale of the same. Descroizilles studies in detail the alkalis of the commerce. Finally, a review is made of other lesser-known aspects related to bleaching powder and alum, ending with the contribution of Gay Lussac to the titrimetry, fundamental to consolidate the work undertaken by Descroizilles

The rise of alternative bread leavening technologies in the nineteenth century.

This article reveals how nineteenth-century chemists and health reformers tried to eradicate the use of yeast in bread, claiming they had devised healthier and more sanitary ways to raise bread. It describes the alternative technological solutions to baking bread, investigating factors that influenced their development and adaptation in the marketplace. A lack of scientific and cultural consensus surrounding yeast, what it was and what it did, fermented during this period. The conflict over yeast helped create a heterogeneous industrialization of the baking industry, changing processes and ingredients and creating new forms of bakery products. By examining the claims of promoters of rival scientific beliefs and technologies, as well as those of users and social commentators, we can see that technology's eventual adaptation and impact on society is not predictable at its outset. Exploring the relationship between differing scientific beliefs, cultural understandings and alternative technologies also shows how science and industry cannot be isolated from their social and cultural context. The examination of the nineteenth-century technological development of commonplace commodities such as bread, baking powder and yeast, also reveals and explores a story that has not been told before in the history of science and technology. Why it has not been told is as enlightening as the story itself, revealing as it does our own privileging of what is important in science and history.

Overview of Vaccine Adjuvants: Introduction, History, and Current Status.

Adjuvants are included in sub-unit or recombinant vaccines to enhance the potency of poorly immunogenic antigens. Adjuvant discovery is as complex as it is a multidiscplinary intersection of formulation science, immunology, toxicology, and biology. Adjuvants such as alum, which have been in use for the past 90 years, have illustrated that adjuvant research is a methodical process. As science advances, new analytical tools are developed which allows us to delve deeper into the various mechanisms that generates a potent immune response. Additionally, these new techniques help the field learn about our existing vaccines and what makes them safe, and effective, allowing us to leverage that in the next generation of vaccines. Our goal in this chapter is to define the concept, need, and mechanism of adjuvants in the vaccine field while describing its history, present use, and future prospects. More details on individual adjuvants and their formulation, development, mechanism, and use will be covered in depth in the next chapters.

Designing and building the next generation of improved vaccine adjuvants.

Vaccine adjuvants interact with the immune system, to increase the potency of vaccine antigens. Many of the adjuvants currently available were developed with little understanding of how they worked. Highly pure recombinant antigens are typically very poorly immunogenic due to a lack of exogenous immune activating components such as nucleic acids, lipids, and cell membrane components. In this review we discuss the role of adjuvants and their role as 'delivery systems' or 'immune potentiators'. We also highlight the need for appropriate delivery of immune potentiators with several 'delivery system' adjuvants such as alum, emulsions, liposomes, and polymeric particles. The challenges faced by vaccinologists to create the next generation of vaccines can be solved in-part by developing a greater understanding of the impact of delivery, and an appreciation of the key role of pharmaceutical sciences.

New thoughts concerning the epidemic of rickets: was the role of alum overlooked?

Recent emphasis on the re-emergence of nutritional rickets has renewed interest in the etiology and therapy of this devastating disorder. At its peak in the 19th and 20th century, rickets was a major area of study for countless experts in childhood disorders and numerous theories abounded as to its cause. These included, among others, infections, confinement or intestinal disturbances, and were largely discarded after the discovery of the role of vitamin D and the importance of ultraviolet irradiation. Once a good explanation had been found for the cause of the disorder and the curative power of vitamin D proven, whether it was obtained from the diet or through exposure to sunlight, there was no apparent need to look any further into the etiology of rickets. But in fact there may have been other contributory factors, recognition of which might have lessened the severity of the disease or hastened recovery. One of these theories might be of particular interest to pediatric nephrologists because it relates to insoluble aluminum-based phosphate binders. Namely, alum used as an adulterant in bread in certain locations may have contributed to metabolic bone disease during the great epidemic of rickets.